Rev. Dr. Stelyios Muksuris, Rev. Dr. Alkiviadis Calivas, Rev. Dr. Nicholas Denysenko, John Klentos, Paul Meyendorff, Lewis Patsavos, Teva Regule, Rev. Dr. Philip Zymaris.
In accordance with Orthodox Christian scriptural and patristic
tradition, fasting finds its origins in the divine commandment given in
paradise (Gen 2.16-17; St. Basil, On Fasting 1.3; PG 31.168A),
where man is invited to honor his relationship with God by obedience.
One sees God thereby as the benevolent Source of all goodness (Mt 4.4)
and humanity as the beneficiary of His benevolence. While typically
referenced within the context of partial or complete abstinence from
food and drink, its interior principle focuses on a dynamic interface
between harnessing instinctive behavior and living the precepts of the
Gospel. In other words, fasting seeks to assist us in reprioritizing our
allegiances from an addictive dependence upon worldly goods to an
intimate relationship with God and neighbor.
Fasting as the “ascetic ideal” is always understood as a means — an
instrument — for strengthening the soul and body, never as an end in
itself. It centers primarily on the conformity of our will with God’s
purpose. This internal transformation begins with the eradication of sin
in order for us to see clearly the state of our relationship with God,
our fellow human beings and ourselves. It leads to repentance,
empowering us to extend ourselves through merciful and loving service to
others as a positive affirmation of virtue. Fasting should not be
practiced in isolation nor perceived as a burdensome activity.
On the contrary, it contributes joyously to the reprioritization of
spiritual goals by interacting dynamically through intense prayer,
personal reflection, almsgiving, and immersion in the Church’s
sacramental life.
The prescribed periods of fasting (Nativity, Lent, Apostles,
Dormition), like the weekly fasts, prompt the Church to fast
collectively as a sign of solidarity and mutual support of its members
and find fulfillment in the Divine Liturgy. Even the Eucharistic fast,
as an individual preparation for Communion, engages the communicant into
a conversion process from emphasis of self to other. Since the
Eucharist constitutes the “most profound expression” of the Church (§9),
fast and feast highlight the communal nature of liturgical worship,
which in turn reflects the eschatological nature of the Kingdom of God.
We fast individually for our own spiritual benefit as a means of
expressing repentance and fulfilling a pledge of obedience to God. Yet,
we also fast as Church, containing within ourselves prayerfully and
compassionately awareness of our common humanity with its brokenness and
hopefulness. In imitation of the example set by Christ in the desert
(Mt 4.1-2), we are likewise called by the Spirit to prepare ourselves
through fasting and prayer for a life dedicated to the spiritual work of
charity toward others.
In keeping with this multidimensional view of fasting, it is
important not to reduce its discipline to a set of rules with minimal
connection to this “positive” nature of the fast. A plethora of
patristic and liturgical texts, especially during the first week of the
Great Fast, reminds us of this truth.
Specifically, the aforementioned precaution may apply to the
imposition by clergy of fasting regulations upon the faithful which
prove to be burdensome and devoid of spiritual or bodily benefit. With
regard to liturgical or spiritual practices such as fasting, the
canonical tradition of the Church takes an incarnational approach to the
regulations within its corpus. The canons serve as guidelines that take
under consideration not only the original purpose for which they were
intended, but also the measure of one’s ability to benefit from them.
Hence, if one is physically sick or in spiritual conflict, the proper
concessions are foreseen to prevent an unwanted consequence to the
detriment of the person in such a state.
With regard to the increasingly complex dietary challenges
experienced by the faithful today — often dictated by various chronic
maladies previously unknown (e.g., celiac disease) or other equally
legitimate circumstances (unavailability of “traditional” fasting foods)
— the categories of “quantity” and “quality” of food (simple,
inexpensive, albeit unhealthy, as opposed to elaborate, costly, though
healthier foods) should be revisited. Given variable cultural and social
contexts between local churches and regions, fasting regulations will
naturally differ, so one cannot realistically expect a uniformity in
practice.
Although the conciliar text addresses the adverse conditions that
pose challenges to fasting only generally and exhorts the faithful to
exercise pastoral sensitivity in such cases (§8), one senses a
partiality for the monastic practice of fasting. To this impression, the
words of St. Diadochos of Photiki are especially instructive:
We should therefore regulate our food according to the condition of the body, so that it is appropriately disciplined when in good health and adequately nourished when weak. The body of one pursuing the spiritual way must not be enfeebled; he must have enough strength for his labors so that the soul may be suitably purified through bodily exertion as well. [St. Diadochos of Photiki, “On Spiritual Knowledge and Discrimination: One Hundred Texts”, 45 in The Philokalia, vol. 1, p. 266.]
Some general comments on the document on fasting include: (1) the
need for accurate and precise translations to avoid confusion (e.g., in
§2, «ὡς μέσον ἐγκρατείας, μετανοίας καὶ πνευματικῆς ἀνατάσεως» is
best translated “as a means of self-restraint, repentance, and
spiritual uplifting”); (2) better usage of appropriate scriptural
citations to support a position (e.g., the selected verses in §2 — Mk
1.6, Acts 13.2 and 14.21, Rom 14.21 — give minimal direct support to the
aforementioned themes); (3) in §8, the application of the reference to
Ezekiel 33.11 in this context makes the wrongful assumption that
non-adherence to the “prevailing fasting guidelines” renders the
faithful “sinful and wicked”; (4) better clarity and unitive coherence
throughout the document (e.g., in §5, should not the “spiritual struggle
of the fast,” besides the dietary component, refer also to the other
equally important threads, such as abstinence, prayer, almsgiving?). And
abstinence from distracting behaviors, such as excessive usage of
electronic devices or boisterous, unbridled forms of entertainment,
affirms the modest nature of a holistic fast; and (5) the document may
give the impression that the intense ascetical struggle practiced by the
faithful leads to their salvation as an individual achievement, whereas
salvation as a gift of God to be received humbly and joyfully may be
overlooked.
Fasting must not be seen simply as an ascetical discipline observed
periodically during the ecclesiastical year, but as an expression of
authentic Christian living to be observed regularly. In this sense, it
rewards those who fast joyfully, as well as the world for which they
fast and pray fervently.
Nicholas Denysenko is Associate Professor of Theological Studies
and Director of the Huffington Ecumenical Institute at Loyola Marymount
University.Alkiviadis Calivas is Emeritus Professor of Liturgics at Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology.
John Klentos is Associate Professor of Eastern Orthodoxy Studies at the Patriarch Athenagoras Orthodox Institute and the Graduate Theological Union.
Paul Meyendorff is the Alexander Schmemann Professor of Liturgical Theology at St. Vladimir’s Seminary.
Stelyios Muksuris is Professor of Liturgical Theology at the Byzantine Catholic Seminary of Saints Cyril and Methodius.
Lewis Patsavos is Emeritus Professor of Canon Law at Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology.
Teva Regule is a doctoral candidate in the theology department at Boston College.
Philip Zymaris is Assistant Professor of Liturgics at Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology.
This essay was sponsored by the Orthodox Theological Society in America’s Special Project on the Holy and Great Council and published by the Orthodox Christian Studies Center of Fordham University.
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